In linguistics, lexical-functional grammar is a model of grammar that provides a framework for examining both morphological structures and syntactic structures. Also known as psychologically realistic grammar.
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David W. Carroll notes that the 'major significance of lexical-functional grammar is the shunting of most of the explanatory burden onto the lexicon and away from transformational rules' (Psychology of Language, 2008).
The first collection of papers on the theory of lexical-functional grammar (LFG)--Joan Bresnan's The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations--was published in 1982. In the years since, notes Mary Dalrymple, 'the growing body of work within the LFG framework has shown the advantages of an explicitly formulated, non-transformational approach to syntax, and the influence of this theory has been extensive' (Formal Issues in Lexical-Functional Grammar).
Examples and Observations
- 'In LFG, the structure of a sentence consists of two distinct formal objects: C[onstituent]-structure of the familiar kind plus a functional structure (or F-structure) which displays certain additional kinds of information. Most important in the F-structure is the labeling of grammatical relations like subject and object (these are called grammatical functions in LFG).
'The first part of the name reflects the fact that a great deal of work is done by the lexical entries, the 'dictionary' part of the framework. Lexical entries are usually rich and elaborate, and each one inflected from a lexical item (such as write, writes, wrote, written and writing) has its own lexical entry. Lexical entries are responsible for dealing with many relations and processes handled by different machinery in other frameworks; an example is the voice contrast between actives and passives.'
(Robert Lawrence Trask and Peter Stockwell, Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts, 2nd ed. Routledge, 2007) - Different Kinds of Structures
'A natural languageutterance is rich in structures of different kinds: sounds form recurring patterns and morphemes, words form phrases, grammatical functions emerge from morphological and phrasal structure, and patterns of phrases evoke a complex meaning. These structures are distinct but related; each structure contributes to and constrains the structure of other kinds of information. Linear precedence and phrasal organization are related both to the morphological structure of words and to the functional organization of sentences. And the functional structure of a sentence--relations like subject-of, object-of, modifier-of, and so on--is crucial to determining what the sentence means.
'Isolating and defining these structures and the relations between them is a central task of linguistics. . . .
'Lexical Functional Grammar recognizes two different kinds of syntactic structures: the outer, visible hierarchical organization of words into phrases, and the inner, more abstract hierarchical organization of grammatical functions into complex functional structures. Languages vary greatly in the phrasal organization they allow, and in the order and means by which grammatical functions are realized. Word order may be more or less constrained, or almost completely free. In contrast the more abstract functional organization of languages varies comparatively little: languages with widely divergent phrasal organization nevertheless exhibit subject, object, and modifier properties that have been well-studied by traditional grammarians for centuries.'
(Mary Dalrymple, John Lamping, Fernando Pereira, and Vijay Saraswat, 'Overview and Introduction.' Semantics and Syntax in Lexical Functional Grammar: The Resource Logic Approach, ed. by Mary Dalrymple. The MIT Press, 1999)
- C(onstituent)-Structure and F(unctional) Structure
'LFG contains multiple parallel structures each modeling a different aspect of linguistic structure. The main syntactic structures are (c)onstituent-structure and f(unctional) structure . . .
'C-structure models the 'surface' syntactic form of language: it is here that surface precedence and dominance relations are encoded. C-structures are phrase-structure trees, characterized by a particular form of X' theory . . . designed to accommodate the large amount of phrase structure variation found cross-linguistically, from the relatively strict configurationality of languages like English to the more radically non-configurational languages of Australia. . .
'C-structures are always base-generated; there is no movement. . . . [T]he effect of movement is achieved by the fact that different c-structure positions can be mapped into the same f-structure via unification.
'The level of f-structure models grammatical relations. Unlike c-structures, which are phrase structure keys, f-structures are attribute-value matrices. F-structure attributes may be grammatical functions (e.g. SUBJ, OBJ, COMP, also nonargument functions TOP(IC), FOC(US)), tense/aspect/mood categories (e.g. TENSE), functional nominal categories (e.g. CASE, NUM, GEND), or the predicate (semantic) attribute PRED. . . . The contents of f-structure come from the lexical items of the sentences themselves, or annotations on the nodes of the c-structure linking pieces of c-structure to parts of the f-structure.'
(Rachel Nordlinger and Joan Bresnan, 'Lexical-Functional Grammar: Interactions Between Morphology and Syntax.' Non-Transformational Syntax: Formal and Explicit Models of Grammar, ed. by Robert D. Borsley and Kersti Börjars. Blackwell, 2011)
Alternate Spellings: Lexical-Functional Grammar (capitalized)
Recent papers in Lexical-Functional Grammar
This paper discusses fresh data demonstrating salient and intricate properties of case marking (viz., split/double case marking for subject and case stacking for object) and co-indexing agreement in Kodi, an underdocumented Austronesian... more
This paper discusses fresh data demonstrating salient and intricate properties of case marking (viz., split/double case marking for subject and case stacking for object) and co-indexing agreement in Kodi, an underdocumented Austronesian language in Sumba Island, Indonesia. While has been some previous descriptive work mentioning agreement on Kodi (Sukerti 2013; Ghanggo Ate 2018), the intricacies of case marking and agreement in this language have not been analysed in considerable depths. We argue that the case marking intricacies in the interface of morphology, semantics and syntax of grammatical relations in Kodi can be straightforwardly analysed within the modular, parallel-structure based LFG.
- by Yustinus Ghanggo Ate
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This paper engages in the (X)COMP debate in LFG. It argues that the view from Hungarian supports a 'reductionist' position, as Hungarian complement clauses are easily amenable to an analysis with non-COMP functions. I also remark on the... more
This paper engages in the (X)COMP debate in LFG. It argues that the view from Hungarian supports a 'reductionist' position, as Hungarian complement clauses are easily amenable to an analysis with non-COMP functions. I also remark on the wider picture and side with those who would like to maintain a parsimonious inventory of grammatical functions in LFG, in conjunction with a reworked theory of functional and anaphoric control.
- by Péter Szűcs
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This paper investigates the syntactic and information-structural properties of certain English constructions where some discourse-prominent element is located left-peripherally: Topicalization, Clause-initial adjuncts and... more
This paper investigates the syntactic and information-structural properties of certain English constructions where some discourse-prominent element is located left-peripherally: Topicalization, Clause-initial adjuncts and Left-dislocation. I show that these structures have different syntactic and information-structural properties which may be adequately represented in Lexical Functional Grammar.
- by Péter Szűcs
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his paper discusses word order in one Australian language, Warlpiri, with respect to information packaging. Austin (1996), Laughren (2002), Legate (2002) have suggested that topic and focus in Warlpiri can be represented as constituent... more
his paper discusses word order in one Australian language, Warlpiri, with respect to information packaging. Austin (1996), Laughren (2002), Legate (2002) have suggested that topic and focus in Warlpiri can be represented as constituent structure positions in an extended left periphery. I argue that the left periphery does need to be enriched, and that modifications to the phrase structure are needed to account for some properties of what can occur in initial position in Warlpiri. However, expressing information structure order constraints cannot be straightforwardly derived from phrase structure constituency, and so iit is probably necessary to represent information structure as a separate dimension (Mohanan 1994, King 1997, 2004, Choi 1999)I shall also argue, following Choi, King and Butt (1996), that topic and focus are better analysed in terms of features of relative prominence and relative newness.
- by Jane Simpson
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Barayin is an East Chadic language spoken by around 5000 people in the Guera region of the Republic of Chad. This dissertation examines a particular type of syntactic construction in the language, serial verb constructions, from the... more
Barayin is an East Chadic language spoken by around 5000 people in the Guera region of the Republic of Chad. This dissertation examines a particular type of syntactic construction in the language, serial verb constructions, from the perspectives of typological (or comparative) syntax, descriptive grammar, and the formal syntactic theory of Lexical-Functional Grammar (LFG). Typologically, serial verb constructions are problematic because they represent a heterogeneous set of multiverb constructions that have features that do not fit into traditional syntactic categories like subordination, conjunction and adjunction. Part A of this dissertation describes these problematic features in detail, providing a succinct overview of the literature which can serve as a resource for field linguists describing similar constructions. Part B of the dissertation gives a detailed description of the morphology, syntax and semantics of serial verb constructions in Barayin. These chapters contribute to our knowledge of the world’s languages by documenting a complex syntactic phenomenon in an area of the world where most of the languages are significantly understudied. The most common type of SVC in Barayin involves a deictic motion verb. The motion is normally (but not always) understood to take place prior to the activity or state predicated by the main verb. The formal analysis of Barayin SVCs in Lexical-Functional Grammar in Part C uses recent developments in the theory to show how argument sharing in SVCs can be represented in a connected s-structure that conforms to the standard mechanisms of LFG. The approach is compared to two previous analyses of complex motion predicates in other languages which appeal to a non-standard formal mechanism to model complex predicates.
- by Joseph Lovestrand
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El objetivo de la obra que aquí se presenta es sencillo; pretende ofrecer una aproximación a la génesis, evolución y repercusión lingüística de una teoría gramatical conocida como la Gramática Léxico-Funcional, pretende asentar los... more
El objetivo de la obra que aquí se presenta es sencillo; pretende ofrecer una aproximación a la génesis, evolución y repercusión lingüística de una teoría gramatical conocida como la Gramática Léxico-Funcional, pretende asentar los fundamentos teóricos de dicha gramática así como describir sus principales aplicaciones a la lengua castellana. Para ello, partiremos muy especialmente de dos trabajos capitales en el desarrollo de esta teoría, a saber, el capítulo de Kaplan y Bresnan (1982) –trabajo en el que se asientan las bases teóricas de la gramática– y el libro de Bresnan (2001) –trabajo en el que su autora desarrolla las últimas propuestas teóricas de la gramática–.
Para llevar a cabo esta empresa, el presente libro consta de seis capítulos. En el primer capítulo, queremos dar respuesta al primer objetivo formulado, esto es, qué es la Gramática Léxico-Funcional, cuáles fueron sus orígenes y qué ha supuesto la introducción de esta gramática para el conjunto de teorías gramaticales ya existentes. En concreto, nos centraremos en la cuestión de las influencias que ha recibido de, posiblemente, la teoría gramatical más importante desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX, a saber, la Gramática Generativa Transformacional así como de la repercusión que ha tenido para esta teoría gramatical el desarrollo de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional.
En segundo lugar, en los capítulos 2, 3 y 4, la finalidad que se persigue es presentar los conceptos básicos de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional que permitan comprender su funcionamiento así como los fenómenos sintácticos en los que estos conceptos se fundamentan. En estos capítulos, se introducirán conceptos tales como estructura-c, estructura-f, función matemática, Integridad léxica, Condición de Unicidad, Condición de Completitud, Condición de Coherencia, lenguas configuracionales y lenguas no configuracionales, ecuación funcional... Como se tratará en los capítulos indicados, la unión de algunos de estos conceptos otorgan a la Gramática Léxico-Funcional una considerable robustez y explicitud teórica que la convierten en un buen formalismo gramatical en el que todo queda bien justificado, relacionado y especificado.
Por último, en los capítulos 5 y 6, se introducen algunas de las aplicaciones más importantes de la LFG en el estudio de las lenguas naturales. En concreto, en el capítulo 5, se tratan cuatro fenómenos sintácticos cuya elección no es casual sino que responde a la importancia que se les ha concedido a estos fenómenos en las últimas décadas. Respecto al capítulo 6, cabe señalar que este capítulo presenta tanto un aspecto teórico –i e. presentar la teoría argumental de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional– como de aplicación a la lengua castellana –i. e. se describe cómo se asignan los papeles semánticos en los argumentos de algunos verbos del castellano–.
Para llevar a cabo esta empresa, el presente libro consta de seis capítulos. En el primer capítulo, queremos dar respuesta al primer objetivo formulado, esto es, qué es la Gramática Léxico-Funcional, cuáles fueron sus orígenes y qué ha supuesto la introducción de esta gramática para el conjunto de teorías gramaticales ya existentes. En concreto, nos centraremos en la cuestión de las influencias que ha recibido de, posiblemente, la teoría gramatical más importante desde la segunda mitad del siglo XX, a saber, la Gramática Generativa Transformacional así como de la repercusión que ha tenido para esta teoría gramatical el desarrollo de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional.
En segundo lugar, en los capítulos 2, 3 y 4, la finalidad que se persigue es presentar los conceptos básicos de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional que permitan comprender su funcionamiento así como los fenómenos sintácticos en los que estos conceptos se fundamentan. En estos capítulos, se introducirán conceptos tales como estructura-c, estructura-f, función matemática, Integridad léxica, Condición de Unicidad, Condición de Completitud, Condición de Coherencia, lenguas configuracionales y lenguas no configuracionales, ecuación funcional... Como se tratará en los capítulos indicados, la unión de algunos de estos conceptos otorgan a la Gramática Léxico-Funcional una considerable robustez y explicitud teórica que la convierten en un buen formalismo gramatical en el que todo queda bien justificado, relacionado y especificado.
Por último, en los capítulos 5 y 6, se introducen algunas de las aplicaciones más importantes de la LFG en el estudio de las lenguas naturales. En concreto, en el capítulo 5, se tratan cuatro fenómenos sintácticos cuya elección no es casual sino que responde a la importancia que se les ha concedido a estos fenómenos en las últimas décadas. Respecto al capítulo 6, cabe señalar que este capítulo presenta tanto un aspecto teórico –i e. presentar la teoría argumental de la Gramática Léxico-Funcional– como de aplicación a la lengua castellana –i. e. se describe cómo se asignan los papeles semánticos en los argumentos de algunos verbos del castellano–.
- by Juan Carlos Tordera Yllescas
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These files are supplementary material to my 2018 dissertation title Serial Verb Constructions in Barayin. The files contain a mini XLE grammar and small test corpus for an implemented version of the LFG grammar presented in the... more
These files are supplementary material to my 2018 dissertation title Serial Verb Constructions in Barayin. The files contain a mini XLE grammar and small test corpus for an implemented version of the LFG grammar presented in the dissertation.
XLE is linguistic software with algorithms for parsing natural language based on an LFG analysis. The software can be downloaded for free for non-commercial use, with a required license agreement. For more information on accessing XLE software, visit: http://www2.parc.com/isl/groups/nltt/xle/
NB: For these files to work with XLE, the file extensions need to be changed from '.txt' to '.lfg'
XLE is linguistic software with algorithms for parsing natural language based on an LFG analysis. The software can be downloaded for free for non-commercial use, with a required license agreement. For more information on accessing XLE software, visit: http://www2.parc.com/isl/groups/nltt/xle/
NB: For these files to work with XLE, the file extensions need to be changed from '.txt' to '.lfg'
- by Joseph Lovestrand
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Gender-marking in language is a relatively common phenomenon and it illustrates how a language community apprehends the notion of gender at the cultural level. Gender-marking in words can also be seen as a form of discrimination, whereas... more
Gender-marking in language is a relatively common phenomenon and it illustrates how a language community apprehends the notion of gender at the cultural level. Gender-marking in words can also be seen as a form of discrimination, whereas words of the same grammatical category are ranged into marked and unmarked. These important aspects of gender has caused a number of scholars to analyze how to account for the phrase structure and bring out the flexion of gender and other grammatical features in the lexicon. The Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) and the Minimalist Program (MP) are two examples of theoretical frameworks which propose a phrase structure taking into account language features in the lexicon. Both theories are born and developed within the larger framework of the Generative Grammar. This paper aims at comparing the phrase structure analysis in general and gender in particular within the Lexical Functional Grammar and the Minimalist Program. It helps to apprehend common features and differences in their accounts for the Phrase Structure, especially in French, a gender-marked language where the manipulation of morphemes related to gender are differently approached throughout both theories. The outcome of this paper is also about which theory fits a better analysis of phrase structure in a gender-marked language, such as French, and consequently, provides a better methodology of teaching a gender-marked language.
- by Hanoukoume Cyril Kparou
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The importance of pragmatics in constituent order is a well known and verified fact. Less consideration has received the study of constraints belonging to other linguistic levels, such as the lexical-semantic level or the cognitive... more
The importance of pragmatics in constituent order is a well known and verified fact. Less consideration has received the study of constraints belonging to other linguistic levels, such as the lexical-semantic level or the cognitive approach. Special attention to such factors is paid in this paper, to explain the patterns that show obligatory constituents of two predicative structures, both monovalent, so that this circumstance facilitates a comparative analysis. The question is approached by way of applying it to a verb often used in Latin language —'fio'— in its two major meanings: (a) one in which the verb has a ‘factive’ notion as lexical passive of 'facio' (“to be done”) and (b) that other one where the verb shows an ‘eventive’ meaning (“to take place”). The importance of the cognitive aspect and, therefore, the iconic ordering Verb-Subject is especially present in a particular type of eventive structures, against the trend of a more universal pattern (Subject-Verb), preferred in the factive meaning. Additionally, the study shows how the patterns that are contrary to the usual tendencies can be explained by way of the co-determination of pragmatic and lexical-semantic factors, among others.
- by Concepción Cabrillana
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In this paper I present the crucial aspects of an LFG (and XLE-implementable) analysis of the major types of Hungarian verbal modifiers (VMs). In accordance with the general approach outlined in Laczkó (2014a), I assume that focussed... more
In this paper I present the crucial aspects of an LFG (and XLE-implementable) analysis of the major types of Hungarian verbal modifiers (VMs). In accordance with the general approach outlined in Laczkó (2014a), I assume that focussed constituents, VMs and the (verb-adjacent) question phrase are in complementary distribution in [Spec,VP]. I distinguish two major types of VMs: particles (a.k.a. preverbs) belong to the first type, and the rest of VMs to the other type. On the basis of Laczkó's (2013) analysis, I treat both compositional and non-compositional PVCs lexically, with both the verb and particle having their respective lexical forms with appropriate functional annotations and cross-referencing (including the use of CHECK features). The particle and the verb are analyzed as functional coheads in both PVC types. All the other VMs, with their own grammatical functions, are lexically selected by their verbs in these verbs' lexical forms. Depending on the nature of the VM involved, the verb can impose various constraints on it.
- by Laczkó Tibor
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In this paper I present an LFG (and XLE-implementable) analysis of the preverbal portion of Hungarian finite clauses. The structural representation is largely motivated by É. Kiss (1992) and Laczkó & Rákosi (2008-2014). I argue for S and... more
In this paper I present an LFG (and XLE-implementable) analysis of the preverbal portion of Hungarian finite clauses. The structural representation is largely motivated by É. Kiss (1992) and Laczkó & Rákosi (2008-2014). I argue for S and against IP (and I also postulate CP). I employ a hierarchical, binary branching, adjunction structure for the topic field, in addition to a similar setup in the quantifier field. I handle all the question phrases other than the question phrase immediately adjacent to the verb in multiple constituent questions as occupying VP-adjoined positions in the quantifier field. I assume that focussed constituents, verbal modifiers and the (verb-adjacent) question phrase are in complementary distribution in [Spec,VP]. On the basis of the analysis proposed in this paper, I suggest that LFG's parametric space that is potentially available to c-structure-function associations should be augmented along the following lines. (i) The [Spec,VP] position should be allowed to host the FOCUS discourse function. (ii) The XP in [S XP VP] can also be a topic, in addition to a subject. (iii) A VP constituent can also contain a subject.
- by Laczkó Tibor
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In this paper, partially motivated by É. Kiss (1992, 1994), I develop the core aspects of the first LFG analysis of constituent and predicate negation in Hungarian. My general framework is the approach to Hungarian finite sentences... more
In this paper, partially motivated by É. Kiss (1992, 1994), I develop the core aspects of the first LFG analysis of constituent and predicate negation in Hungarian. My general framework is the approach to Hungarian finite sentences proposed in Laczkó (2014a). I concentrate on essential c-structural, functional annotational and lexical representational issues.
- by Laczkó Tibor
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In this paper, I modify and augment my LFG-XLE analysis of negation in Hungarian proposed in Laczkó (2014b) by (i) developing an account of the special uses of negative particles (ii) capturing their interaction with negative polarity... more
In this paper, I modify and augment my LFG-XLE analysis of negation in Hungarian proposed in Laczkó (2014b) by (i) developing an account of the special uses of negative particles (ii) capturing their interaction with negative polarity items (iii) presenting a formal treatment of suppletive negative variants of the copula. In addition, I argue for a particular distribution of labour in my approach for the three standard XLE devices for handling negation phenomena across languages.
- by Laczkó Tibor
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In this paper, I concentrate on the distribution and interaction of operators (question phrases, focused constituents, universal quantifiers and the negative particle) in the preverbal domain of Hungarian finite clauses. I considerably... more
In this paper, I concentrate on the distribution and interaction of operators (question phrases, focused constituents, universal quantifiers and the negative particle) in the preverbal domain of Hungarian finite clauses. I considerably modify the LFG-XLE analysis I presented in Laczkó (2014a). On the one hand, I complement some aspects of my earlier analysis. On the other hand, I enlarge the empirical coverage greatly by developing an account of all the construction types investigated by Mycock (2010).
- by Laczkó Tibor
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Serial verb constructions (SVCs) have attracted the interest of linguists for decades; they are a frequent phenomenon in Mabia (Gur) languages but have been the topic of debate in the Mabia language Mooré, since its multi-verb... more
Serial verb constructions (SVCs) have attracted the interest of linguists for decades; they are a frequent phenomenon in Mabia (Gur) languages but have been the topic of debate in the Mabia language Mooré, since its multi-verb constructions show a linking element which most common definitions of SVCs do not allow. This thesis discusses multiple definitions and constraints of SVCs and provides an overview of previous and my own research on SVCs in Mooré to analyse the status of multi-verbal constructions in the language. On this fundament, it develops a theoretical analysis of a serialising connector in Mooré and subsequently presents an account of this theory within the framework of Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG).
- by Caroline Pajančič
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This paper addresses the formal properties of constituent structure (c-structure). We demonstrate inadequacies in the formalization of traditional X-bar theory by Bresnan (2001) and Bresnan et al. (2016), and in the alternative proposal... more
This paper addresses the formal properties of constituent structure (c-structure). We demonstrate inadequacies in the formalization of traditional X-bar theory by Bresnan (2001) and Bresnan et al. (2016), and in the alternative proposal of Marcotte (2014). We propose ' minimal c-structure ' as a new approach to phrase structure within Lexical-Functional Grammar, which almost entirely eliminates non-branching nodes, and neatly captures the distinction between projecting and non-projecting words. Our proposal is fully formalized , and has been successfully tested by an XLE implementation.
- by Joseph Lovestrand
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The study of phonology and morphed-soundshifts in both Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc remains incomplete. The present research focuses chiefly on morphed-soundshift or velarization and the epenthetic nasal or /n/ (ን). This velarization... more
The study of phonology and morphed-soundshifts in both Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc remains incomplete. The present research focuses chiefly on morphed-soundshift or velarization and the epenthetic nasal or /n/ (ን). This velarization occurs in both palatals (e.g. /y/ > /g/) and uvulars (e.g /q/ > /g/), and furthermore within velars (e.g. /g/ > /k/ and /k/ > /g/), which all aid in the processes of nasal epenthesis as will be drawn out in the present study. Consequently these processes of change notwithstanding rest primarily upon particular combinations of consonants, such as certain organic double palatals, velars and uvular consonants or couplets: e.g. /yy/ and /gg/, /kk/ and /qq/.
Therefore the paper deems to draw out and evidence, that, all these organic combinations become in Æthiopic through (morphed) sound shift and as a consequence of epenthesis, shift to what we might call nasal-velars or nasal-uvulars: e.g. /qq/ > /nqq/. While in Old Ænglisc similarly the like or following is observed to occur, /yy/ > /gg/ > /ng/; besides /kk/ > /nc/ or /ng/; and /qq/ > /nc/ (nk) or /ng/.
Whence most notable is that /yy/, and /gg/, /kk/ and /qq/, may due to their combinational environments all become /ng/ or /nc/.
This may all be exemplified in both languages by the Æthiopic term /þanqaq|a/ be accurate and its Old Ænglisc cognate þenc|an to think; consider, of which both forms contain /nqq/ or /nc/ respectively, the nasal however not being organic to the root, as here evidenced by the Æthiopic form with the double uvulars. Notwithstanding to further substantiate the latter, the Old Norsk has /-kk/, while the Gothic attests /-gk/, id est both somewhat seem to retain or evidence the final radical, albeit with a morphed-soundshift from /q/ to k/g; ONors. ðekk|ja to perceive (Vigfusson 1864: 614); Goth. þagk|ian think (Balg 1887 - 89: 753, 754).
Moreover in addition, it is also to be further noted that the Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc also besides velarizing and epenthetizing, do also labialize, palatize and as already shewn syncopate their velars and uvulars; these changes this is important for it will also be evidenced, of these for example that labio-velars and labio-uvulars and so on, are also of particular import for the present study, as these may affect the process of epenthesis, velaraization an the like: e.g. /gg/> /gwgw; /kk/ > kwkw and /qq/ > / qwqw/ &c.
Thus the paper endeavours to illustrate all these anomalies towards a better understanding of both Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc phonology and synthetic morphology and of further significance for the latter tongue, organic root forms, and thus generally a better understanding of cognation between the two languages and their language families. The research serves also as a contribution to a comparative phonology and grammar of the languages under analysis. Finally it ought to be mentioned that scholars of the Anglo-Saxon language on the whole, including those of the OED, evidently are unaware of the organic root forms of many of the epenthetic terms ending in /ng/ and /nc/ (OED 1933/61:[vol.x] 76). This in the same way that Æthiopic scholars appear to be unaware of the prime movers and processes that causes nasal epenthesis. The latter group (Æthiopic) presently having mainly a labial consideration, id est epenthesis is first considered a labial phenomenon, then occurring it is said, in the so called palatal-guttural-mutes (velars &c.) and asparates and finally sibilants &c. Otherwise little else is mentioned of the processes (Dillmann 1907:134, 135; Leslau 1987 {1989}:222). Also observe that /ng/, organic or epenthetic, phonetically may be considered in both Old Ænglisc (Moore and Knot 1934:6, 16) and Æthiopic as [ŋg], unless palatized, whence [ŋj].
Draft Paper, copyright, January 2018, By Rev Dn. Gabra ’AGZI’AABHER JR
[Title: Velarization & Systematic 'Nasal Epenthesis' in Coupled Velars & Uvulars: contra, Labialization, Palatization & Syncope (A Comparative Study in the Phonology of Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc)
By: Rev Dn. Gabra ’AGZI’AABHER JR,
Æthiopian Linguistic and Philological Association]
Therefore the paper deems to draw out and evidence, that, all these organic combinations become in Æthiopic through (morphed) sound shift and as a consequence of epenthesis, shift to what we might call nasal-velars or nasal-uvulars: e.g. /qq/ > /nqq/. While in Old Ænglisc similarly the like or following is observed to occur, /yy/ > /gg/ > /ng/; besides /kk/ > /nc/ or /ng/; and /qq/ > /nc/ (nk) or /ng/.
Whence most notable is that /yy/, and /gg/, /kk/ and /qq/, may due to their combinational environments all become /ng/ or /nc/.
This may all be exemplified in both languages by the Æthiopic term /þanqaq|a/ be accurate and its Old Ænglisc cognate þenc|an to think; consider, of which both forms contain /nqq/ or /nc/ respectively, the nasal however not being organic to the root, as here evidenced by the Æthiopic form with the double uvulars. Notwithstanding to further substantiate the latter, the Old Norsk has /-kk/, while the Gothic attests /-gk/, id est both somewhat seem to retain or evidence the final radical, albeit with a morphed-soundshift from /q/ to k/g; ONors. ðekk|ja to perceive (Vigfusson 1864: 614); Goth. þagk|ian think (Balg 1887 - 89: 753, 754).
Moreover in addition, it is also to be further noted that the Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc also besides velarizing and epenthetizing, do also labialize, palatize and as already shewn syncopate their velars and uvulars; these changes this is important for it will also be evidenced, of these for example that labio-velars and labio-uvulars and so on, are also of particular import for the present study, as these may affect the process of epenthesis, velaraization an the like: e.g. /gg/> /gwgw; /kk/ > kwkw and /qq/ > / qwqw/ &c.
Thus the paper endeavours to illustrate all these anomalies towards a better understanding of both Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc phonology and synthetic morphology and of further significance for the latter tongue, organic root forms, and thus generally a better understanding of cognation between the two languages and their language families. The research serves also as a contribution to a comparative phonology and grammar of the languages under analysis. Finally it ought to be mentioned that scholars of the Anglo-Saxon language on the whole, including those of the OED, evidently are unaware of the organic root forms of many of the epenthetic terms ending in /ng/ and /nc/ (OED 1933/61:[vol.x] 76). This in the same way that Æthiopic scholars appear to be unaware of the prime movers and processes that causes nasal epenthesis. The latter group (Æthiopic) presently having mainly a labial consideration, id est epenthesis is first considered a labial phenomenon, then occurring it is said, in the so called palatal-guttural-mutes (velars &c.) and asparates and finally sibilants &c. Otherwise little else is mentioned of the processes (Dillmann 1907:134, 135; Leslau 1987 {1989}:222). Also observe that /ng/, organic or epenthetic, phonetically may be considered in both Old Ænglisc (Moore and Knot 1934:6, 16) and Æthiopic as [ŋg], unless palatized, whence [ŋj].
Draft Paper, copyright, January 2018, By Rev Dn. Gabra ’AGZI’AABHER JR
[Title: Velarization & Systematic 'Nasal Epenthesis' in Coupled Velars & Uvulars: contra, Labialization, Palatization & Syncope (A Comparative Study in the Phonology of Æthiopic and Old Ænglisc)
By: Rev Dn. Gabra ’AGZI’AABHER JR,
Æthiopian Linguistic and Philological Association]
- by Gabra AGZIAABHIR JR
- •
Periphrasis poses a serious challenge to morphological and syntactic theory. The mor-phosyntactic properties a periphrastic form encodes are not necessarily equal to composition of those of its individual members, and their internal... more
Periphrasis poses a serious challenge to morphological and syntactic theory. The mor-phosyntactic properties a periphrastic form encodes are not necessarily equal to composition of those of its individual members, and their internal syntax is not always reduced to a simple head-complement relation. This paper illustrates that seemingly straightforward verb clusters involving lexical, auxiliary, and copula verbs in Japanese in fact exhibit both mono-clausal and bi-clausal properties in syntax. Further, a close inspection shows that one specific type of periphrasis realising the past, negative, polite features is employed because of the absence of a corresponding synthetic form. We show how those diverse patterns of periphrasis can be captured in the projection architecture of Lexical Functional Grammar. In essence, the morphological dependency relations are encoded in morphosyntactic structure, while syntactic clausality is encoded in functional structure. The interaction of those structures is constrained by feature specifications of individual members of periphrasis. The analysis also adopts a newly developed morphological component in the framework where a lexical entry is defined in terms of a set of relations, and we argue that the paradigmatic nature of periphrasis found in one type of the periphrasis can be formulated in this component.
- by Ryo Otoguro
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- by Mustafa Ağca
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- 46
Valid arguments are those whose conclusions are consequences of their premise-sets. Valid arguments with all true premises are sometimes called sound. However, some established logicians use the adjective ‘sound’ as a synonymous... more
Valid arguments are those whose conclusions are consequences of their premise-sets. Valid arguments with all true premises are sometimes called sound. However, some established logicians use the adjective ‘sound’ as a synonymous substitute for ‘valid’ and sometimes interchangeably with ‘valid’; others reserve ‘sound’ for different uses. Some classic texts don’t use ‘sound’ in a logical sense.
Besides modifying ‘argument’, ‘sound’ is also used to modify ‘inference’, ‘rule of inference’, ‘reasoning’, ‘method’(for generating schemata), and ‘step’, to mention prominent examples.
Less often, like ‘complete’, it is used for properties that apply to logics, specifically comparing their deducibility relations to their consequence relations. A logic is [strongly] sound iff every conclusion deducible from a given premise-set follows from that set. A logic is [weakly] sound iff every conclusion deducible from the empty premise-set follows from that set, i.e. is devoid of information, tautologous.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mark Brown, Idris Samawi Hamid, Forest Hansen, Allen Hazen, Joaquin Miller, Andrei Mirovan, Frango Nabrasa, Alemayehu Weldemariam, and others.
Besides modifying ‘argument’, ‘sound’ is also used to modify ‘inference’, ‘rule of inference’, ‘reasoning’, ‘method’(for generating schemata), and ‘step’, to mention prominent examples.
Less often, like ‘complete’, it is used for properties that apply to logics, specifically comparing their deducibility relations to their consequence relations. A logic is [strongly] sound iff every conclusion deducible from a given premise-set follows from that set. A logic is [weakly] sound iff every conclusion deducible from the empty premise-set follows from that set, i.e. is devoid of information, tautologous.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Mark Brown, Idris Samawi Hamid, Forest Hansen, Allen Hazen, Joaquin Miller, Andrei Mirovan, Frango Nabrasa, Alemayehu Weldemariam, and others.
- by John Corcoran
- 25 comments
- 38 participants
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